PUBLICATIONS

Ditswa Mmung: The Archaeology of Botswana is the first comprehensive overview of the archaeology of Botswana. the chapters, written by specialists who have worked throughout Botswana on archaeology and related subjects, derive from papers presented at a symposium held by the Archaeology Unit of the University of Botswana.

Ditswa Mmung not only offers a review of the archaeological record itself, but also provides a consideration of the historical development of the discipline and an insight into the current organization ofcultural resource management and museum activity in Botswana.

Archaeology in Botswana has followed a path divergent from its development in the rest of Africa. In the colonial era the Kalahari sandveld and its margins were not perceived to be important for palaeontological research or the study of farming societies and states. By 1970 there had been only two archaeological excavations in Botswana. A concerted approach to archaeology began with ethnoarchaeological studies of contemporary hunter-gatherer societies conducted by a host of researchers from disciplines as diverse as anthropology, anatomy and biology. the 1980s saw research gather momentum, principally through the Archaeology Division of the National Museum. This documented in particular the later prehistory of the country. Now more than 2000 sites have been recorded, and over 100 of these have been excavated.

Surveys indicate that Botswana was not in fact the marginal frontier to farmer occupation it had been assumed to be. Rather, some prehistoric societies did actually prosper from its minerals, wildlife, dry climate and extensive rangelands well suited to cattle-raising.

This volume provides a comprehensive summary of the results of archaeological research up to 1997, and deals with all aspects of Botswana's archaeology from Toutswemogala to the Tsodilo Hills, from Ju/'hoan (!Kung San) to Jwaneng, and from a history of the development archaeology in the country to the historical archaeology of 19th and 20th century sites.

See also a review of this book by Neil Parsons.

Chapters:

Kofi Darkwah, "Leonard Diniso Ngcongco and Historical Studies in Botswana"

Kofi Darkwah, "Interview with Leonard Diniso Ngcongco"

H. M. Batibo, J. Moiloa, & N. Mosaka, "The Historical Implications of the Linguistic Relationship between Makua and Sotho Languages"

Neil Parsons, "Makgowa, Mahaletsela, and Maburu: Early Traders and Travellers before c. 1820"

Bruce S. Bennett, " 'Suppose a Black Man Tells a Story': the Dialogues of John Mackenzie the Missionary and Sekgoma Kgari the King and Rainmaker"

H. Zins, "The International Context of the Creation of the Bechuanaland Protectorate in 1885"

Christopher Saunders, "Ngcongco, Jabavu, and the South African War"

P. T. Mgadla, "Missionary Wives, Women, and Education: the Development of Literacy among Batswana, 1840 - 1937"

Bojosi Otlhogile, "A History of Botswana Through Case Law"

I. N. Mazonde, "Battlefield of Wits: Interface Between NGO's, Government and Donors at Xade Development Site"

Bruce Bennett (ed.), Essays on Twentieth Century Botswana History (Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, 1999 vol. 13 nos 1-2 special issue)

A sample collection of some of the best student research essays not previously published. See our page on Student Research and Publications for the full list.

• Introduction and abstracts
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  Introduction

  The University of Botswana's undergraduate history research essay course began in the early 1970s when the Gaborone campus was still a small outpost of the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland. Initially it was a course run by Thomas Tlou, the first Head of the History Department and later Vice-Chancellor. In 1976 it was expanded into a seminar course involving all the department's lecturers, and in this form it was nurtured over many years by Michael Crowder and Leonard Ngcongco as heads of the History Department. The course has continued to followed the basic lines established in the 1970s, though with some experiments and innovations. One experiment consisted of concentrating the whole research class each year in a particular district, with each student taking a thematic subject. This was abandoned after a few years due to technical problems, especially linguistic limitations in non-Setswana-speaking regions. With the foundation of the Archaeology Unit, the course expanded with the addition of archaeology students, whose presence has helped to foster inter-action between the historians and archaeologists - which requires effort but benefits both groups.

  A notable feature is the department's collective involvement: although each student has an individual supervisor (or occasionally two), the selection of projects and the marking of essays is done by the entire staff collectively. That is, every lecturer attends every presentation and marks every essay. Entry to the course is selective, and takes place towards the end of the third year. After preliminary work and consultation with the supervisor, the research students depart for the field. This preliminary planning is important since many students, working in remote areas, are largely out of touch with the supervisor, though the supervisor will make at least one field inspection.

  The students return for the new academic year and begin writing up their findings, making a first presentation in the first semester. In many cases a small amount of additional research can be done in the Christmas break. In the second semester the second draft is presented. On the basis of the discussion, the students then write their third and final draft, which will in due course be deposited in the University Library. The deposited essays were described as "B.A. dissertations" until the 1990s, and now as "research essays". In some cases field notes have been appended.

  Although the research essays are basically a training exercise, they are also a serious contribution to the history and archaeology of Botswana. As a training exercise, the students are required to interpret their data and present arguments, and often this has produced works of considerable interest. However, even when the interpretation is weak or questionable, the data recorded by the students may be of great value to future researchers. In some western countries, it often seems that a student reaches Ph.D. level before really producing important new research. In Botswana there is so much to do that even an average undergraduate research student may well add significantly to our knowledge.

  The essays included here are only a sample. Some of the best essays have already been published in other journals. It is hoped that this selection is in some degree representative, or at least indicative of the range of subjects. Kenneth Manungo's essay was written in the course's second year, while Cheneso Maphorisa's was completed in 1999.

  When the Botswana historians took up Sir Seretse Khama's famous call for the rediscovery of the African past, they were starting, if not from scratch, at least from a dearth of written history. In hindsight, it can be seen that the development of Botswana historiography follows a logical sequence not unlike that of many other countries. Narrative political and administrative history, concentrating on public actors and events, can easily be criticized for a narrow focus, but it seems to be a natural starting point and a foundation and framework for other types of study. Kenneth Manungo's frequently-cited 1977 essay on the Native (later African) Advisory Council is an excellent example of this sort of foundation work.

  Political history has continued to interest Botswana students. As well as the colonial state, interest has focussed on the politics of the chiefdoms, as in Titus Mbuya's 1984 essay on legitimacy and succession in the BaKwena state, and Theophilus Mooko's 1985 essay on BaNgwato royal women. In both cases the authors analyse the interaction between the traditional political order and the superstructure of the colonial government, to show how this produced innovation. In both cases also, the authors identified topics which have been of great interest to subsequent scholars and indeed the general public. Theophilus Mooko's paper takes a view of the conflicts among the BaNgwato elite with which not everyone will agree; but his paper is undoubtedly a good starting point.

  Botswana's minority groups have not been neglected. Students who come from minority language groups have taken advantage of their background to conduct research among their own people. Although there are no examples of this particular type in this collection, there are two notable essays on minorities: Phanuel Richard's 1980 case study of Basarwa subordination, and George Manase's 1984 essay on the Ovaherero refugees who settled in Ngamiland after the German war of extermination. Both are notable for their close attention to specifics, which give substance to generalities: a great deal can be learnt from Phanuel Richard's study about how subordination came about.

  Economic history is represented here by Lily Mafela's 1982 essay on the colonial dairy industry. A convincing analysis of the reasons for the industry's rise and fall is set within a broader (and more controversial) framework based on the dependency theory then current.

  Although a number of students have been interested in women's history, essays have tended to have more to say on individuals than on general gender relations. An exception is the 1991 essay by Gaele Sobott on women's experience during the Second World War.

  Religious history in Botswana has benefited from the attention of some of the most notable historians of this country, including John and Jean Comaroff and Paul Landau. Cheneso Maphorisa's 1999 essay on the Zionists of Lentswe-le-Moriti focusses on a group of religious dissidents who founded their own independent village. Maphorisa shows that despite their group's origins in a political dispute, the religious dynamic is primary. He also shows that, while African Independent Churches are often seen as representing a rejection of European authority, they can also involve a rejection of elements of the surrounding African secular society. Thus, our survey of research essays began with a student laying the essential foundations of political history, and ends with a student whose work challenges the single political-nationalist master narrative. It is in no small part thanks to the more than two hundred students who have written these research essays that Botswana is most definitely no longer "a nation without a past".

  Bruce Bennett

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  The politics of separation: the case of the OvaHerero of Ngamiland

  George Uaisana Manase

  A number of OvaHerero, fleeing the German war of extermination in 1904, crossed from German South West Africa (Namibia) into the Bechuianaland Protectorate and settled in Ngamiland. These OvaHerero came under Tawana overlordship, but retained their cultural identity and even a large degree of their political structures. Initially destitute and unfamiliar with Bechuanaland conditions, they became richer over time. Although proposals for a return to Namibia, including one involved with Tshekedi Khama's campaign against the incorporation of South West Africa into South Africa, were not realized, the desire to return remained. Politically the Ngamiland OvaHerero were associated with SWANU more than SWAPO.

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  Basarwa surbordination among the BaKgatla: a case study in Northwestern Kgatleng, circa 1920-1979

  Phanuel Richard

  Most studies of the Tswana-Basarwa relations have focussed on the BaNgwato. This case study examines the Western Kgatleng, where a Kgatla family established itself in the Kgomodiatshaba area in the 1920s and 1930s. Initially relations with local Basarwa engaged in hunting and gathering were on terms of equality and mutual assistance, but the conversion of bush to cattel land gradually reduced the resource base for the Basarwa and they became dependent on working for the BaKgatla farmers.

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  The role of the Native Advisory Council in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1919-1960

  Kenneth R. D. Manungo

  The Bechuanaland Protectorate lagged behind most British African colonies in the development of its government. In 1920 a Native (later "African") Advisory Council was established, representing mainly the chiefs. Key issues for the Council included racial discrimination in the Protectorate, agricultural improvement, and (above all) preventing the Protectorate's transfer to the Union of South Africa. Despite calls for constitutional development, it was not until 1960 that a Legislative Council for the Protectorate was established.

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  The role of royal women in BaNgwato politics under the regency of Tshekedi Khama, 1926-1949

  Theophilus Mooko

  In precolonial times, women had a very limited public role in Tswana politics, despite a few notable exceptions. Under the colonal government, the role of royal women increased and female regents became less uncommon. In GammaNgwato, the death of Sekgoma II was followed by a power struggle in which royal women including Baboni, Oratile, and MmaKhama were leading opponents of the young regent Tshekedi Khama. The colonial government backed Tshekedi. These struggles were essentially personal, but later in the colonial period greater political participation by ordinary women developed.

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  Legitimacy and succession in Tswana states: the case of BaKwena, 1930-1963

  Titus Mbuya

  Succession to Tswana chiefship followed apparently clear rules, but could nonetheless be disputed, especially after colonial rule introduced the new requirement of the Administration's favour. Sebele II, who became chief of the BaKwena in 1918, was deposed by the Administration in 1931 for non-co-operation. His successor, Kgari Sechele II, was initially seen as simply a colonial government appointee, but eventually established his own legitimacy with his subjects. However, he had no children, and after his death in 1962 the problem of the succession returned.

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  Colonial initiatives and African response in the establishment of the dairy industry in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1930-1966

  Lily Mafela

  The dairy industry arose in Bechuanaland primarily as an alternative to beef production in response to South Africa's restrictions on the import of cattle from the Protectorate. African dairy producers were at a disadvantage compared to settler farmers due to the lack of government support for the infrastructure essential for highly perishable dairy produce. The decline of dairy production in the later colonial period can be attributed to the revival of beef exporting, which undercut the Administration's already limited interest. These events can be situated within the broader pattern of colonial underdevelopment.

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  Experiences of Batswana women during the Second World War

  Gaele Sobott

  During the Second World War the Bechuanaland Protectorate government sought to increase food production for export. With so many Batswana men away in the army or in the South African mines this required an intensified use of women's labour. Women took on traditional male roles in addition to their own, but their control over their product was in fact eroded as compared to pre-war practice. Exports increased but the food supply within the Protectorate was diminished. However, it seems that women did not express much overt dissatisfaction, but instead took pride in coping with the strain and supporting their menfolk.

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  Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, vol. 13, nos. 1 & 2 (1999)

  The Zionist village of Lentswe-le-Moriti (1999)

  Cheneso Maphorisa

  The Zion Christian Church was introduced in the Kgatleng as part of a political struggle, but quickly became a genuine religious body. Expelled from the Kgatleng in 1947, the Zionists sought a place of their own and in 1953 founded their own village at Lentswe-le-Moriti. Despite initially difficult relations with neighbouring settler farmers, the village has established itself while preserving a strong religious identity. Relations with neighbouring BaBirwa have been cemented by the establishment of a state school in the village serving both communities. The village has resisted attempts to assimilate it to more normal Botswana administration (for instance by introducing a headman).

Vol. 1: [Not available]

Vol. 2: Missionaries and Western Education in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1889 - 1904
Part Themba Mgadla, 1989

Vol. 3: The Conflict between the New Religious Movements and the State in the Protectorate of Botswana prior to 1949
Don Rempel Boschman, 1994

Vol. 4: The Origins and Development of the Ecumenical Movement in Botswana, 1965 - 1994
James Amanze, 1994

Vol. 5: An African Independent Church Leader: Bishop Smart Mthembu of the Head Mountain of God Apostolic Church in Zion
Obed Kealotswe, 1995

Vol. 6: The Origins and Development of the Methodist Mission in the Area of Present-Day Botswana
Jennifer Potter, 1995

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Some other recent publications by members of the Department:

Maitseo Bolaane & P.T. Mgadla, Batswana, New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 1997, ISBN0-8239-2008-9 (Heritage Library of African Peoples series)

Neil Parsons, King Khama, Emperor Joe and the Great White Queen : Victorian Britain Through African Eyes, 1998

These books are available from the Internet booksellers Amazon at www.amazon.co.uk :

How We Lived

Many members of the department were involved in writing a series of booklets called "How We Lived" - aimed at the rapidly changing History and Social Studies curricula in Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, and particularly Curriculum 2005 in South Africa.

The series was designed to inject historical understanding and African context not only into the Learning Area of Human & Social Sciences, but also into Language & Communication, Technology, Mathematics, Natural Science, Economic and Management Sciences, and Life Orientation.

Some already published titles of "How We Lived" are displayed here. Other titles in production by our staff and other teachers in Botswana are:

• Who Are We? - Themba Mgadla
• Medieval Africa - Neil Parsons
• The Industrial Revolution - Henryk Zins & Bruce Bennett
• Colonial Rule in Africa - Chipasha Luchembe & Gilbert Sekgoma
• Conquest and Resistance - Geoffrey Barei & Brian Mokopakgosi
• The Second World War - Bruce Bennett
• Nationalism in the Middle East - Jeff Ramsay
• South Africa's Neighbours - Maitseo Bolaane & Barry Morton
• The Study of History - Leonard Ngcongco

We anticipate the production of a further title with assistance from our Archaeology Programme:

• Early People in Africa - Alinah Segobye et. al.

However changing South African education policy has resulted in a significant part of the series being put on hold.

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Copyright © 1999 University of Botswana History Department
Last updated 11 October 2008
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